BIOMOLECULES

Biomolecules

 

tRNA

 1.                      1. Biomolecule: All the chemicals which are present in the body of a living organism is                   called biomolecules.

 

2. Protoplasm: The colourless material which comprises the living part of the cell, including the cytoplasm, nucleus and other cell organelles 

  

3. Biochemistry: It is the branch of biology which deals with the study of biochemical or the study of biology with reference to chemistry is called biochemistry.

4. Carbohydrate: They are also called saccharides. They are biomolecules made from just three elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the general formula (CH₂O)_n.

5. Monosaccharide: These are the simplest form of sugar which can not be further hydrolysed into smaller molecules, these are also considered as a monomer of carbohydrate.

6. Aldoses: Monosaccharide containing aldehyde (-CHO) group are called aldoses E.g. Glucose, Galactose, xylose etc.

7. Ketoses: Monosaccharide containing ketone (-C=O) the group are called ketoses E.g. Fructose, Ribulose etc.

8. Reducing sugar: All monosaccharide are reducing sugar due to the presence of free aldehyde or ketone group. These sugars reduce the Benedict’s reagent (Cu²⁺ to Cu⁺) since they are capable of transferring hydrogen (electrons) to other compounds, a process called reduction.

9. Glucose: It is the most important fuel in a living cell. Its concentration in human blood is about 90mg per 100ml of blood.

10. Galactose: It looks very similar to glucose molecules. They can also exist in α and β forms. Galactose reacts with glucose to form the disaccharide lactose.

11. Fructose: It is the fruit sugar and chemically it is ketohexose but it has a      five-atom ring rather than a six-atom ring. Fructose reacts will glucose to form the sucrose, a disaccharide.

12. Disaccharide: Most sugars found in nature is disaccharides. Disaccharide is formed when two monosaccharide react by condensation reaction releasing a water molecule.

13. Glycosidic bond: The bond which joins two monosaccharide units together is called glycosidic bond.

14. Polysaccharides: Carbohydrate which is made up of large number of monomers (monosaccharide) is called polysaccharide.

15. Homopolysaccharide: The polysaccharide which is made up of only one type of monomer (monosaccharide) is called homopolysaccharide.

16. Heteropolysaccharide: The polysaccharide which is made up of many different types of monomer (monosaccharide) is called heteropolysaccharide.

17.  Starch: Starch is a stored food in the plants. It exists in two forms: amylose and amylopectin. Both are mode from α-glucose.

18.  Amylose: The unbranched polymer of α-glucose is called amylose.

19.  Amylopectin: The branched polymer of α-glucose is called amylose.

20. ATP: Energy currency of the cell is called ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate).

21. Glycogen: Glycogen is stored food in animal body particularly in liver and muscles. It is a kind of amylopectin.

22. Cellulose: It is a polymer made from β- glucose molecules and the           polymer  molecules are ‘straight’. Cellulose serves to form the cell walls in plants cells.

23. Lipid: These are water insoluble simple fatty acids or their derivatives, esterified with glycerol. e.g Palmitic acid(16 c) Stearic acid(18c) and Arachidonic acid(20c).

24. Fatty acid: These are organic acids composed of hydrocarbons chain ending with a carboxyl group.

25. Saturated fatty acid: The fatty acids which do not show the presence of double-bonds between the carbon atoms of their hydrocarbon chain. E.g. Palmitic and Stearic acids.

26.  Unsaturated fatty acid: The fatty acid with one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chain. E.g. Oleic acid and Linoleic acid.

27. Simple lipid: Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols is called a simple lipid. e.g. Fats and Waxes.

28.  Fats: Esters of fatty acid with glycerol is called fat.

29.  Triglyceride:  These are made up of three molecules of fatty acids and one molecule of glycerol.

30.  Oil: An unsaturated fat which is liquid at room temperature is called oil.

31. Waxes: They are esters of long-chain fatty acids with long-chain alcohols. They are most abundant in the blood, the gonads and sebaceous glands of the skin.

32. Compound lipid: These are esters of fatty acid-containing other groups like phosphorus (Phospholipids), sugar (glycolipids).

33. Phospholipids: They contains molecules of glycerol, two molecules of fatty acids and a phosphate group or simple sugar.

34.  Lecithin: It has an additional nitrogenous compound attached to the      phosphate group of phospholipids.

35. Glycolipid: Glycolipid contains glycerol, fatty acid, simple sugar such as galactose and nitrogen base. They are also called cerebrosides. Large amounts of them have been found in the brain white matter and myelin sheath.

36. Sterol: They are derived lipids. They are composed of fused hydrocarbon rings (steroids nucleus) and a long hydrocarbons side chain. One of the most common sterol is cholesterol.

37. Diosgenin: It is steroids compounds produced by Yam plants (Dioscorea)      which are used in the manufacturing of antifertility pills.

38. Protein: The polymer of amino acids are called protein, Proteins are large molecules containing amino acid units ranging from 100 to 300.

39. Peptide Bond (CO-NH): The bond which is formed between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of next amino acid is called peptide bond.

40. Keratin: It is the hair protein which consists of polypeptide chain arranged like a spiral helix.

41. Pleated sheet: In some protein, two or more peptide chain is linked together by intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Such structures are called pleated sheet.

42. Primary structure: The sequence of amino acids in a protein i.e. in positional information.

43. Secondary structure: The arrangement of protein thread in the form of helix.

44. Tertiary structure: In large protein such as myoglobin and enzymes, peptide chains are much looped, twisted and folded back on themselves due to the formation of disulphide bonds. Such loops and bends give the protein a tertiary structure.

45. Quaternary structure: In haemoglobin, protein subunit are held together to form a quaternary structure.

46. Amphoteric: The molecules which shows the presence of both acidic and basic functional group and act as both acid and base is called an amphoteric molecule.  e.g Protein

47.  Basic proteins: A protein consists of more basics amino acids such as lysines and arginine and behaves as a base at the physiological pH of 7.4. Such proteins are called basic protein.

48.  Acidic protein: A protein rich in acidic amino acids exists as an anion and behave as an acid. Such proteins are called acidic protein. Most of the blood proteins are acidic protein.

49.  Simple proteins: The protein which is made up of only amino acids are called simple protein.

50.  Conjugated protein: Conjugated proteins consist of a simple protein united with some non-protein substance .The non-protein group is called          prosthetic group e.g. haemoglobin.

51. Haemoglobin: Made up of globin protein and the iron-containing pigment haem which functions as prosthetic group.

52.  Nucleoproteins: It is made up of proteins and nucleic acid as a prosthetic group.

53. Mucoproteins: The complex of carbohydrate and protein are called Mucoprotein e.g Mucin of saliva and heparin of blood.

54.  Lipoproteins: Lipoproteins lipid-protein complexes e.g conjugate protein      found in the brain, plasma membrane, milk etc.

55. Derived proteins: The proteins which are derived by partial or complete hydrolysis of the simple or conjugated proteins by the action of acids, alkalies or enzymes is called derived protein.

56.  Nucleic acid: Nucleic acids are among the largest of all molecules found in      living beings. They contain three types of molecules

     a) 5 carbon sugar

     b) Phosphoric acid

     c) Nitrogen-containing bases.

    57. Pyrimidine: Pyrimidine bases are a single ring (monocyclic) nitrogenous             bases. Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil is Pyrimidines.

    58. Purines: Purines are double ring (dicyclic) nitrogenous bases. Adenine and         Guanine are purines.

    59. Base ratio: A+T /G+C is constant for any species. It was given by                         Chargaff.

    60. Nucleotides: the monomer of nucleic acid is called a nucleotide. It consists of     a pentose sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogen base.

    61. Nucleoside: The nitrogenous base along with pentose sugar is called nucleoside.

    62. Phosphodiester bond: The bond which joins nucleotides together in nucleic         acid are called phosphodiester bond. It is formed between the 3^rd and 5^th                 carbon atom of two successive nucleotides.

    63.  Ribonucleic acid: (RNA): it is the single strand polymer of nucleotide which     acts as a genetic material in some plants and animal viruses and involved in             protein synthesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes.

    64. mRNA: it is a messenger RNA, which  carries information for the synthesis         of protein from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosome in cytoplasm.

    65. rRNA: it is a ribosomal RNA, present on the surface of the ribosome. It holds     the mRNA on the surface of the ribosome.

    66. tRNA: It is the transfer RNA, which helps in the transfer of activated amino         acid from the cytoplasmic pool to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

    67. Enzymes: Enzymes are biocatalysts which accelerate the rate of a                         biochemical reaction without itself undergoing any change quantitatively and qualitatively.

    68. Substrate: The substance upon which an enzyme act is termed as the substrate.

    69. Endo-enzyme: The enzymes which act within the cell in which they are               synthesized are known as endo-enzymes e.g enzymes produced in the chloroplast and mitochondria.

    70. Exo- Enzymes: They act outsides the cell in which they are synthesised they     are known as exo-enzymes e.g, enzymes released by Ray fungi.

    71. Prosthetic group: Non-protein part of enzymes attached firmly to the enzyme are called a prosthetic group.

    72. Co-enzyme: The organic non-protein compounds that are tightly attached             with the enzyme to catalyse a reaction are called co-enzymes.

    73. Co-factors: The inorganic ions which are loosely attached to the enzymes are     called co-factors.

    74. Substrate-binding site: The points of active site where the substrate joins             with the enzymes is called substrate binding site.

    75. Active site: The active site is the specific region of the enzymes which combine with the substrates.

    76. oxidoreductase: The enzyme which is involved in oxidation and reduction reactions are called oxidoreductase. E.g. Alcohol dehydrogenase.

    77. Transferases: The enzyme catalyses the transfer of certain groups between two molecules called transferases. E.g. Glucokinase.

    78. Hydrolases: The enzyme catalyses hydrolytic reaction are called hydrolases.         E.g. Proteases, Sucrase etc.

    79. Lyases: The enzymes which are involved in the elimination or breaking of          various chemical bonds without hydrolysis are called lyases. E.g. Fumarate hydrates.

    80. Isomerases: The enzymes which are involved in isomerisation reaction are called as isomerases. E.g. Mutases, Epimerases etc.

    81. Ligases: The enzyme which joins two large molecules by forming chemical bond are called ligases. E.g. DNA ligase.

    82. Metabolism: The metabolism is the sum of the chemical reaction that takes           place within each cell of a living organism.

    83. Catabolism: breakdown of a complex molecule into simpler form is called catabolism.

 

    84. Anabolic pathway: Biosynthetic pathway that involves the formation of a             more complex biomolecules from a simpler structure.

    85. Metabolic pool: It is the reservoir of biomolecules in the cell on which                 enzymes can act to produce useful products as per the need of the cell.

    86. Secondary metabolites: Secondary metabolites are small organic molecules         produced by an organism that are not essential for their growth, development         and reproduction.

    87.  Morphine: Morphine was the first alkaloid isolated from plant Papaver             somniferum. It is used as a pain reliever and cough suppressant.